Trandate: Uses, Dosage & Side Effects
A combined alpha- and beta-adrenergic blocker used to treat hypertension, pregnancy-related high blood pressure, and angina pectoris
Trandate (labetalol) is a prescription medication used to treat mild, moderate, or severe hypertension (high blood pressure), pregnancy-related hypertension, and high blood pressure associated with angina pectoris (chest pain). It belongs to a unique class of drugs that block both alpha-1 and beta-adrenergic receptors in the cardiovascular system. This dual mechanism of action lowers blood pressure by relaxing peripheral blood vessels and reducing heart rate and cardiac output. Labetalol is one of the most widely used antihypertensive drugs in pregnancy and is recommended by international guidelines as a first-line treatment for gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia.
Quick Facts: Trandate
Key Takeaways
- Trandate (labetalol) is a combined alpha- and beta-blocker that lowers blood pressure by both relaxing blood vessels and reducing heart rate, making it effective for mild to severe hypertension.
- It is one of the most commonly recommended antihypertensive medications during pregnancy and is considered a first-line treatment for gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia by major international guidelines (NICE, ESC/ESH, ACOG).
- Trandate must not be used in patients with asthma, severe bradycardia, second- or third-degree heart block (without a pacemaker), uncontrolled heart failure, or Prinzmetal angina.
- Never stop taking Trandate abruptly, as sudden withdrawal can cause rebound hypertension and may worsen angina or trigger a heart attack in patients with ischaemic heart disease.
- Common side effects include dizziness (especially on standing), fatigue, headache, nasal congestion, and nausea; most are transient and occur during the first few weeks of treatment.
What Is Trandate and What Is It Used For?
Trandate contains the active substance labetalol hydrochloride and belongs to a pharmacological group known as combined alpha- and beta-adrenergic blocking agents. Unlike most beta-blockers, which only block beta-adrenergic receptors in the heart and lungs, labetalol also blocks alpha-1 adrenergic receptors in peripheral blood vessels. This dual receptor blockade provides a unique and highly effective mechanism for lowering blood pressure. The alpha-1 blockade causes vasodilation (relaxation and widening of blood vessels), while the beta-blockade reduces heart rate and cardiac output. The combined effect results in a significant reduction in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure without the reflex tachycardia (increased heart rate) that can occur with pure vasodilators.
After oral administration, labetalol’s beta-blocking activity is approximately 3 to 7 times greater than its alpha-blocking activity. This ratio is clinically important because it means the drug primarily reduces blood pressure through vasodilation while also providing sufficient beta-blockade to prevent the compensatory increase in heart rate that would otherwise occur. The result is a smooth, controlled reduction in blood pressure that is well tolerated by most patients. Labetalol reduces peripheral vascular resistance (the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels far from the heart) without significantly reducing cardiac output at rest, which distinguishes it from many other beta-blockers.
Trandate is approved for the treatment of several forms of hypertension. For mild to moderate essential hypertension, it is used as either monotherapy or in combination with other antihypertensive agents, particularly thiazide diuretics. In severe hypertension, higher doses may be required, and labetalol can be titrated to achieve adequate blood pressure control. It is also indicated for hypertension associated with angina pectoris, where its beta-blocking properties help reduce myocardial oxygen demand while its alpha-blocking activity reduces afterload, providing symptomatic relief from chest pain.
One of the most important clinical applications of labetalol is in the management of pregnancy-related hypertension. Gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia affect approximately 5–10% of pregnancies worldwide and can lead to serious complications for both mother and baby, including eclampsia (seizures), HELLP syndrome, placental abruption, and fetal growth restriction. Labetalol is recommended as a first-line antihypertensive agent in pregnancy by several major international guidelines, including the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the European Society of Cardiology/European Society of Hypertension (ESC/ESH), and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). Its favorable safety profile in pregnancy, combined with its efficacy in rapidly and reliably lowering blood pressure, makes it one of the most widely prescribed antihypertensives for pregnant women.
Labetalol is available in both oral (tablet) and intravenous formulations, although availability varies by country. The oral formulation (Trandate tablets) is used for chronic blood pressure management, while the intravenous form is primarily used in hospital settings for hypertensive emergencies, including severe pre-eclampsia and eclampsia, as well as perioperative blood pressure control. This article focuses on the oral tablet formulation.
Trandate’s unique combined alpha- and beta-blocking action distinguishes it from other antihypertensive drugs. By blocking alpha-1 receptors, it directly relaxes blood vessels, lowering peripheral resistance. By blocking beta receptors, it slows the heart rate and reduces the force of contraction. This dual action produces a reliable reduction in blood pressure without the reflex tachycardia seen with pure vasodilators, making it particularly well suited for hypertensive emergencies and pregnancy-related hypertension.
What Should You Know Before Taking Trandate?
Contraindications
There are specific medical conditions in which Trandate must not be used. Understanding these absolute contraindications is essential for safe use of this medication. Your doctor will assess your medical history carefully before prescribing labetalol.
- Heart block: Do not take Trandate if you have second-degree or third-degree atrioventricular (AV) heart block, unless you have a functioning pacemaker. Labetalol can further slow electrical conduction through the heart, potentially causing dangerously slow heart rhythms or complete heart block.
- Uncontrolled heart failure: Trandate must not be used in patients with decompensated (uncontrolled) heart failure. Beta-blockers can initially worsen heart failure symptoms by reducing the heart’s pumping ability. However, once heart failure is stabilized with appropriate treatment, certain beta-blockers may be introduced carefully under specialist supervision.
- Severe bradycardia: If your resting heart rate is very slow (severe bradycardia), labetalol is contraindicated as it can further reduce heart rate to dangerously low levels.
- Prinzmetal angina: This is a form of angina caused by coronary artery spasm rather than fixed narrowing. Beta-blockers including labetalol can worsen coronary vasospasm and should not be used in this condition.
- Asthma or obstructive airways disease: Labetalol blocks beta-2 adrenergic receptors in the lungs, which can cause bronchospasm (tightening of the airways). It is contraindicated in patients with asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or any similar obstructive airways condition.
- Hypersensitivity: Do not take Trandate if you are allergic to labetalol hydrochloride or any of the other ingredients in the formulation (including lactose, magnesium stearate, microcrystalline cellulose, sodium benzoate, hypromellose, titanium dioxide, and para-orange).
Warnings and Precautions
Before starting Trandate, and throughout your treatment, inform your doctor if any of the following conditions apply to you. Your doctor may need to adjust your dose, monitor you more closely, or consider alternative treatments.
- Liver impairment: Labetalol is metabolized by the liver. Patients with impaired liver function or existing liver damage may require lower doses. Rare but serious liver injury (hepatitis, jaundice, liver necrosis) has been reported with labetalol use. Your doctor may perform liver function tests during treatment. If you develop signs of liver problems such as yellowing of the skin or eyes, dark urine, persistent nausea, or unexplained fatigue, seek medical attention immediately.
- Kidney impairment: While labetalol is primarily metabolized by the liver, patients with significant kidney disease should be monitored and may require dose adjustments.
- Peripheral vascular disease: If you have conditions such as Raynaud’s syndrome or intermittent claudication (leg pain during walking due to poor circulation), labetalol may worsen symptoms by reducing blood flow to the extremities.
- Diabetes mellitus: Beta-blockers including labetalol can mask the symptoms of hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar), particularly tachycardia (fast heart rate) and tremor. Patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes should monitor their blood glucose levels carefully while taking this medication.
- Thyrotoxicosis (overactive thyroid): Beta-blockers can mask the cardiovascular signs of thyrotoxicosis, such as rapid heart rate. Abrupt withdrawal of labetalol in patients with thyrotoxicosis may cause a thyroid storm.
- History of severe allergic reactions (anaphylaxis): Patients with a history of severe anaphylactic reactions may be more reactive to allergens while taking beta-blockers, and such reactions may be more resistant to treatment with epinephrine (adrenaline).
- Heart failure or impaired cardiac function: If you have compensated heart failure or reduced left ventricular systolic function, labetalol should be used with caution. First-degree AV block also requires careful monitoring.
- Metabolic acidosis: Labetalol should be used with caution in patients whose bodies produce too much acid or whose kidneys do not remove enough acid.
- Phaeochromocytoma: This is a rare tumour of the adrenal gland that produces excess adrenaline. Labetalol can be used in phaeochromocytoma, but only with caution and typically with adequate alpha-blockade already established.
- Ischaemic heart disease: If you have coronary artery disease, do not stop taking Trandate abruptly. Sudden withdrawal can cause rebound hypertension and worsening of angina.
Never discontinue Trandate abruptly, particularly if you have ischaemic heart disease or angina pectoris. Sudden withdrawal of beta-blockers can lead to rebound hypertension, worsening angina, or, in rare cases, myocardial infarction (heart attack). Your doctor will gradually taper your dose over 1–2 weeks if treatment needs to be stopped.
Surgery
If you are scheduled for any surgical procedure requiring general anaesthesia, you must inform the anaesthetist and surgeon that you are taking Trandate. Beta-blockers can interact with anaesthetic agents and may affect blood pressure and heart rate during surgery. Labetalol may also affect pupil dilation during cataract surgery. Inform your ophthalmologist before eye surgery that you are taking this medication. Do not stop taking labetalol before surgery unless your surgeon specifically instructs you to do so.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
Labetalol is one of the preferred antihypertensive agents for use during pregnancy. It is widely recommended by international guidelines (NICE, ESC/ESH, ACOG, ISSHP) as a first-line treatment for gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia. While the fetus may be affected, Trandate can be taken during pregnancy when the clinical benefit outweighs the potential risk. Your doctor will carefully weigh the benefits and risks.
Labetalol is excreted in breast milk in small amounts. Nipple pain and Raynaud’s phenomenon of the nipples have been reported in breastfeeding women taking labetalol. If you are breastfeeding, consult your doctor before taking Trandate. In most cases, the benefits of continued breastfeeding may outweigh the small risk, but close monitoring of the infant for signs of beta-blockade (such as low heart rate or low blood sugar) may be recommended.
Driving and Operating Machinery
Trandate is unlikely to affect your ability to drive or operate machinery under normal circumstances. However, some patients may experience dizziness or fatigue, particularly during the first few weeks of treatment or after dose increases. You should be aware of how the medication affects you before driving or performing tasks that require alertness. If you experience dizziness or drowsiness, do not drive until these effects have resolved.
Important Information About Excipients
Trandate tablets contain lactose. If you have been told by your doctor that you have an intolerance to certain sugars, contact your doctor before taking this medicine. The tablets also contain para-orange (E110), which may cause allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. Additionally, Trandate 100 mg tablets contain 1.15 micrograms of sodium benzoate (E211) per tablet.
How Does Trandate Interact with Other Drugs?
Drug interactions can alter the effectiveness of your medications or increase the risk of side effects. Labetalol is metabolized by the liver and affects the cardiovascular system, so it can interact with a wide range of other drugs. It is essential to inform your doctor or pharmacist about all medications, supplements, and herbal products you are taking or have recently taken.
Major Interactions
The following interactions are considered clinically significant and may require dose adjustments, close monitoring, or avoidance of the combination:
| Interacting Drug | Effect | Clinical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Calcium channel blockers (verapamil, diltiazem) | Additive negative effects on heart rate and cardiac conduction; risk of severe bradycardia, heart block, and hypotension | Avoid combination with IV verapamil; oral combination requires careful monitoring |
| Class I antiarrhythmics (disopyramide, quinidine) | Additive negative inotropic effect; risk of severe bradycardia and heart failure | Monitor heart function closely; dose adjustment may be needed |
| Class III antiarrhythmics (amiodarone) | Additive effects on cardiac conduction; increased risk of bradycardia and heart block | Close cardiac monitoring required |
| Clonidine | Risk of rebound hypertension if clonidine is stopped while taking a beta-blocker | If both are used, discontinue the beta-blocker several days before stopping clonidine |
| Epinephrine (adrenaline) | Reduced effectiveness of epinephrine in treating anaphylaxis; risk of paradoxical hypertension | Patients on beta-blockers may require higher doses of epinephrine in emergencies |
| Ergotamine derivatives | Increased peripheral vasoconstriction; risk of reduced circulation to extremities | Avoid combination |
Moderate Interactions
The following interactions require awareness and may need monitoring but are generally manageable:
| Interacting Drug | Effect | Clinical Significance |
|---|---|---|
| NSAIDs (indomethacin, sulindac) | May reduce the blood pressure-lowering effect of labetalol | Monitor blood pressure; dose adjustment may be needed |
| Digoxin | Additive slowing of heart rate; increased risk of bradycardia | Monitor heart rate regularly |
| Tricyclic antidepressants (imipramine) | Increased risk of tremor and palpitations | Monitor for cardiovascular symptoms |
| Cimetidine | Increases labetalol blood levels by inhibiting liver metabolism | Dose reduction of labetalol may be required |
| Oral antidiabetics (metformin, sulfonylureas, meglitinides) | May mask signs of hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar), particularly tachycardia | Monitor blood glucose more frequently; educate patient on non-masked hypoglycaemia symptoms such as sweating |
| Cholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil, rivastigmine) | Increased risk of bradycardia | Monitor heart rate |
| Antipsychotics (phenothiazines, chlorpromazine) | Enhanced blood pressure-lowering effect; risk of postural hypotension | Monitor blood pressure, especially on standing |
| Nitrates | Enhanced blood pressure-lowering effect | Monitor blood pressure; adjust doses as needed |
Laboratory Test Interference
Labetalol can interfere with certain laboratory tests and may produce false positive results. In particular, labetalol can cause false elevations in urinary catecholamine measurements when determined by fluorimetric or photometric methods. This is clinically relevant if you are being tested for conditions such as phaeochromocytoma. Ensure that all laboratory personnel and all of your doctors are aware that you are taking labetalol, so that appropriate testing methods can be used.
What Is the Correct Dosage of Trandate?
Always take Trandate exactly as your doctor has prescribed. The dosage is individualized based on your blood pressure response, medical condition, and tolerance of the medication. Do not change your dose or stop taking the medication without consulting your doctor. Trandate tablets should always be taken with food, as food enhances the absorption of labetalol and reduces the risk of postural hypotension (dizziness on standing).
Adults
Standard Dosing
The usual starting dose is 100 mg twice daily. If blood pressure is not adequately controlled after 2–4 weeks, the dose may be increased gradually. Most patients achieve good blood pressure control with doses of 200–400 mg twice daily. In severe hypertension, higher doses up to 2,400 mg per day may be required, divided into three or four doses. Your doctor will titrate the dose according to your individual response.
Hypertension in Pregnancy
For pregnancy-related hypertension, the starting dose is typically 100 mg twice daily, which may be increased as needed under close medical supervision. Blood pressure monitoring should be frequent, and the dose should be adjusted according to the severity of the hypertension and the clinical response. International guidelines recommend labetalol as a first-line oral antihypertensive in pregnancy.
Elderly Patients
Dose Adjustment in Elderly
Elderly patients may be more sensitive to the blood pressure-lowering effects of labetalol. Your doctor may prescribe a lower starting dose and increase it more gradually than in younger adults. Close blood pressure monitoring is particularly important in this age group, especially when standing up (to check for postural hypotension).
Patients with Liver Impairment
Hepatic Impairment
Since labetalol is extensively metabolized by the liver, patients with reduced liver function may require lower doses. Your doctor will monitor your liver function and adjust the dose accordingly. If signs of liver damage develop during treatment, labetalol may need to be discontinued.
Missed Dose
If you forget to take a dose of Trandate, take it as soon as you remember unless it is almost time for your next scheduled dose. In that case, skip the missed dose and continue with your regular dosing schedule. Do not take a double dose to make up for a forgotten one. If you are unsure, consult your doctor or pharmacist.
Overdose
Symptoms of labetalol overdose include extreme dizziness upon standing (postural hypotension) and sometimes a very slow heart rate (bradycardia). If you or someone else has taken too much Trandate, contact your doctor, go to the nearest hospital emergency department, or call your local poison control centre immediately. Take the medication packaging with you to the emergency department.
What Are the Side Effects of Trandate?
Like all medicines, Trandate can cause side effects, although not everybody experiences them. Most side effects are mild and tend to resolve during the first few weeks of treatment as your body adjusts to the medication. However, some side effects can be serious and require immediate medical attention.
Contact emergency services or go to the nearest emergency department immediately if you experience: swelling of the lips, face, or tongue causing difficulty breathing (angioedema); complete inability to urinate despite a full bladder (urinary retention); or symptoms of systemic lupus erythematosus (joint pain, fever, skin rash, and fatigue).
Very Common
- Antinuclear antibodies not associated with disease
Common
- Heart failure
- Elevated liver function tests (usually reversible on discontinuation)
- Dizziness, headache, and tingling sensation in the scalp (usually transient, occurring during first weeks)
- Blurred vision
- Difficulty urinating
- Postural hypotension (dizziness on standing) – more common at high doses or if starting dose is too high
- Nasal congestion (usually transient, occurring during first weeks)
- Nausea
- Erectile dysfunction and ejaculation problems
- Fatigue and lack of energy (usually transient, occurring during first weeks)
- Allergic reactions (hypersensitivity) including rash, itching, breathlessness, and very rarely fever or sudden skin swelling
Uncommon
- Depressed mood (usually transient, occurring during first weeks)
- Bronchospasm (tightening of the lower airways)
- Vomiting and upper abdominal pain
- Excessive sweating (usually transient)
- Muscle cramps
Rare
- Bradycardia (slow heart rate)
Very Rare
- Systemic lupus erythematosus (joint pain, fever, rash, fatigue)
- Complete inability to urinate despite a full bladder (medical emergency)
- Angioedema (swollen lips, face, tongue – may cause breathing difficulties)
- Heart block (disturbance in electrical impulses controlling the heartbeat)
- Hepatitis (liver inflammation, usually reversible on discontinuation)
- Hepatocellular jaundice, cholestatic jaundice, and liver necrosis (usually reversible on discontinuation)
- Worsening of Raynaud’s syndrome (cold fingers due to poor circulation)
- Swollen ankles (usually transient)
- Toxic myopathy (drug-induced muscle inflammation and weakness)
- Tremor (when used for pregnancy-related hypertension)
- Eye irritation
Not Known
- Nipple pain
- Raynaud’s phenomenon of the nipples (intermittent reduced blood flow to the nipples, causing numbness, pallor, and pain)
If you develop a rash, dry eyes, or any type of allergic reaction while taking Trandate, contact your doctor. Your doctor may reduce your dose or discontinue the treatment. Always follow your doctor’s instructions.
If you develop bradycardia (slow heart rate) as a result of taking Trandate, your doctor may reduce your dose. If low heart rate is confirmed on examination, dose adjustment or treatment modification will be considered.
If you experience any side effects, talk to your doctor or pharmacist. This includes any possible side effects not listed in this information. You can also report side effects directly to your national medicines regulatory authority. By reporting side effects, you help provide more information on the safety of this medicine.
How Should You Store Trandate?
Proper storage of your medication ensures that it remains effective and safe throughout its shelf life. Keep Trandate tablets in the original container to protect them from light and moisture. Store the medication at a temperature not exceeding 30°C (86°F). Do not freeze the tablets.
Keep this medicine out of the sight and reach of children. Do not use Trandate after the expiry date stated on the container. The expiry date refers to the last day of that month. Once the expiry date has passed, the medication should not be used.
Do not dispose of unused medications via the toilet, sink, or in household rubbish. Ask your pharmacist about how to dispose of medicines you no longer need. These measures help to protect the environment and ensure that unused medications do not pose a risk to others.
What Does Trandate Contain?
Understanding the composition of your medication can help you identify potential allergens or excipients to which you may be sensitive.
| Component | Type | Amount per Tablet |
|---|---|---|
| Labetalol hydrochloride | Active ingredient | 100 mg |
| Anhydrous lactose | Excipient (filler) | 14.6 mg |
| Magnesium stearate | Excipient (lubricant) | — |
| Microcrystalline cellulose | Excipient (binder) | — |
| Sodium benzoate (E211) | Excipient (preservative) | 1.15 µg |
| Hypromellose | Excipient (film coating) | — |
| Titanium dioxide (E171) | Excipient (colourant) | — |
| Para-orange (E110) | Excipient (colourant) | — |
Tablet Appearance
Trandate 100 mg: Orange, round, biconvex, film-coated tablet, 8 mm in diameter, marked with “TT01” on one side. Available in plastic containers of 100 tablets.
Not all pack sizes may be marketed in all countries. The marketing authorization holder is Aspen Pharma Trading Limited, Dublin, Ireland. The tablets are manufactured by Aspen Bad Oldesloe GmbH, Germany.
Frequently Asked Questions About Trandate
Trandate (labetalol) is used to treat mild, moderate, or severe hypertension (high blood pressure), pregnancy-related hypertension (including pre-eclampsia), and hypertension associated with angina pectoris (chest pain). It is a combined alpha- and beta-adrenergic blocker that lowers blood pressure by relaxing blood vessels and reducing heart rate.
Yes, Trandate is one of the most commonly recommended antihypertensive medications during pregnancy. It is considered a first-line treatment for gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia by major international guidelines including NICE, ESC/ESH, and ACOG. While the fetus may be affected, the clinical benefit generally outweighs the potential risk. Close monitoring of both mother and baby is essential, and the medication should only be used under medical supervision.
The most common side effects include dizziness (especially when standing up quickly), headache, tingling of the scalp, fatigue, nasal congestion, nausea, blurred vision, and erectile dysfunction. Most of these side effects are transient and tend to occur during the first few weeks of treatment. If they persist or become troublesome, consult your doctor about adjusting your dose.
No, you should never stop taking Trandate suddenly, especially if you have ischaemic heart disease or angina. Abrupt withdrawal of beta-blockers can lead to rebound hypertension, worsening of angina, or in rare cases, heart attack. Your doctor will gradually reduce your dose over 1–2 weeks if treatment needs to be discontinued.
Trandate (labetalol) is unique because it blocks both alpha-1 and beta-adrenergic receptors, unlike most beta-blockers which only block beta receptors. This dual mechanism means it lowers blood pressure both by reducing heart rate (beta-blockade) and by relaxing blood vessels (alpha-blockade). This combined action makes it particularly effective for hypertensive emergencies and pregnancy-related hypertension, and it causes less reflex tachycardia than pure vasodilators.
Yes, Trandate should be taken with food. Taking labetalol with meals enhances its absorption and may help reduce the risk of dizziness on standing (postural hypotension). Your doctor or pharmacist will advise you on the best times to take your doses in relation to meals.
Yes, like other beta-blockers, Trandate can mask certain symptoms of hypoglycaemia (low blood sugar), particularly fast heart rate (tachycardia) and tremor. However, sweating – another important sign of hypoglycaemia – is not masked. Patients with diabetes taking Trandate should monitor their blood sugar levels more frequently and be educated about recognizing hypoglycaemia symptoms that are not masked by the medication.
References
- European Medicines Agency (EMA). Labetalol – Summary of Product Characteristics. www.ema.europa.eu
- World Health Organization (WHO). WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, 23rd edition (2023). Labetalol is included as an essential antihypertensive. WHO Essential Medicines List
- Mancia G, Kreutz R, Brunström M, et al. 2023 ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Journal of Hypertension. 2023;41(12):1874–2071. doi:10.1097/HJH.0000000000003480
- National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Hypertension in pregnancy: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline [NG133]. 2019, updated 2023. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng133
- Magee LA, von Dadelszen P, Rey E, et al. Less-tight versus tight control of hypertension in pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine. 2015;372(5):407–417. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1404595
- Tita AT, Szychowski JM, Boggess K, et al. Treatment for mild chronic hypertension during pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine. 2022;386(19):1781–1792. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2201295
- British National Formulary (BNF). Labetalol hydrochloride – drug monograph. bnf.nice.org.uk
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Trandate (labetalol hydrochloride) – prescribing information. www.fda.gov
- International Society for the Study of Hypertension in Pregnancy (ISSHP). The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: ISSHP classification, diagnosis & management recommendations for international practice. Pregnancy Hypertension. 2022;27:148–169.
- MacCarthy EP, Bloomfield SS. Labetalol: a review of its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses and adverse effects. Pharmacotherapy. 1983;3(4):193–219.
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