Furosemide
Potent loop diuretic for edema, heart failure and hypertension
Furosemide is a powerful loop diuretic listed on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It removes excess fluid from the body by acting on the kidneys, making it a first-line treatment for edema associated with heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and kidney disease. Furosemide is also used to treat hypertension and acute pulmonary edema. It requires a prescription and regular monitoring of electrolytes and kidney function.
Quick Facts
Key Takeaways
- Furosemide is a potent loop diuretic that works rapidly to remove excess fluid – within 30–60 minutes orally and 5 minutes intravenously.
- It is a first-line treatment for edema in heart failure, liver cirrhosis, and chronic kidney disease, and is on the WHO Essential Medicines List.
- Regular monitoring of potassium, sodium, magnesium, and kidney function is essential during treatment to prevent dangerous electrolyte imbalances.
- Furosemide has significant drug interactions – particularly with aminoglycosides (hearing damage), digoxin (toxicity risk), and NSAIDs (reduced diuretic effect).
- It should not be used during breastfeeding and requires careful risk-benefit assessment during pregnancy. Dose adjustment is needed in elderly patients.
What Is Furosemide and What Is It Used For?
Quick Answer: Furosemide is a fast-acting loop diuretic that removes excess fluid from the body by blocking sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys. It is primarily used to treat edema (fluid retention) caused by heart failure, liver disease, or kidney disease, and is also used in hypertension management.
Furosemide belongs to the pharmacological class of loop diuretics, named for their site of action in the loop of Henle within the kidney. It is one of the most widely prescribed diuretics worldwide and has been included on the World Health Organization (WHO) Model List of Essential Medicines since its inception, reflecting its critical importance in global healthcare. The drug was first approved for clinical use in the 1960s and has since become a cornerstone of fluid management in both acute and chronic medical conditions.
The primary mechanism of furosemide involves inhibition of the sodium-potassium-chloride cotransporter (NKCC2) in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle. By blocking this transporter, furosemide prevents the reabsorption of sodium, potassium, and chloride ions from the renal tubular fluid back into the bloodstream. This results in a significant increase in the excretion of water and electrolytes, producing a potent diuretic effect that is substantially more powerful than thiazide diuretics.
Furosemide is prescribed for several clinical indications, with the most common being:
- Heart failure: Furosemide is a first-line treatment for fluid overload (congestion) in both acute and chronic heart failure. The 2023 ESC Heart Failure Guidelines recommend loop diuretics as essential for symptom relief in patients with signs of fluid retention, including peripheral edema, pulmonary congestion, and elevated jugular venous pressure.
- Hepatic cirrhosis with ascites: Furosemide, often combined with spironolactone, is used to manage fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity (ascites) and peripheral edema associated with liver cirrhosis.
- Chronic kidney disease (CKD): In patients with impaired renal function, furosemide helps manage fluid overload when the kidneys can no longer adequately regulate fluid balance. Higher doses are typically required as kidney function declines.
- Acute pulmonary edema: Intravenous furosemide provides rapid relief by reducing pulmonary congestion, making it a critical emergency medicine in acute decompensated heart failure.
- Hypertension: While not a first-line antihypertensive agent, furosemide may be used when thiazide diuretics are insufficient or contraindicated, particularly in patients with concurrent renal impairment.
- Hypercalcemia: Furosemide promotes calcium excretion and can be used as an adjunct treatment for acute hypercalcemia after adequate fluid resuscitation.
One of the distinguishing features of furosemide is its rapid onset of action. When taken orally, the diuretic effect begins within 30 to 60 minutes, peaks at 1 to 2 hours, and lasts approximately 4 to 6 hours. When administered intravenously, the onset is within 5 minutes, with peak effect at 30 minutes and a duration of approximately 2 hours. This pharmacokinetic profile makes furosemide particularly valuable in acute clinical situations where rapid fluid removal is essential.
What Should You Know Before Taking Furosemide?
Quick Answer: Furosemide should not be used if you are severely dehydrated, have very low potassium or sodium levels, have severe liver failure with hepatic coma, or are allergic to furosemide or sulfonamides. Special caution is needed in elderly patients, those with diabetes, gout, or low blood pressure.
Contraindications
Furosemide must not be used in the following situations:
- You are allergic to furosemide, sulfonamide-derived medications (e.g., certain antibiotics and oral antidiabetic agents), or any other ingredient in the formulation
- You have severe dehydration or are at risk of dehydration
- You have severe hypokalemia (dangerously low potassium) or severe hyponatremia (dangerously low sodium)
- You have anuria (near-complete absence of urine production) that does not respond to furosemide
- You have hepatic encephalopathy or hepatic coma
- You are breastfeeding (furosemide passes into breast milk and may reduce milk production)
Warnings and Precautions
Inform your doctor before starting furosemide if any of the following apply to you. These conditions may require dose adjustment, additional monitoring, or special precautions:
- Low blood pressure (hypotension): Furosemide can cause significant blood pressure drops, especially at the start of treatment or with dose increases. Patients who already have low blood pressure or are taking other antihypertensive medications face a higher risk of symptomatic hypotension, which may manifest as dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting.
- Diabetes mellitus: Furosemide can impair glucose tolerance and increase blood sugar levels. Patients with diabetes may require adjustment of their antidiabetic medication. Regular blood glucose monitoring is advisable during furosemide therapy.
- Gout or hyperuricemia: Furosemide increases uric acid levels in the blood, which may precipitate gout attacks in susceptible individuals. Patients with a history of gout should be monitored closely and may need prophylactic treatment.
- Urinary obstruction: If you have difficulty emptying your bladder or suspect any obstruction to urinary flow (e.g., from prostate enlargement or urinary stones), furosemide use requires careful monitoring. Adequate urine flow must be ensured before and during treatment.
- Liver disease: In patients with liver cirrhosis, electrolyte imbalances caused by furosemide may trigger or worsen hepatic encephalopathy. Dose adjustments and careful electrolyte monitoring are mandatory.
- Kidney disease: While furosemide is used to treat fluid overload in kidney disease, careful dose titration is essential. Kidney function may decline further with aggressive diuresis.
- Hypoalbuminemia (low protein levels): Patients with low blood albumin levels may have a reduced response to furosemide and may require higher doses.
- Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): Furosemide may worsen or reactivate SLE.
- Elderly patients: Older adults are at increased risk of dehydration, electrolyte disturbances, and hypotension. Lower starting doses and more frequent monitoring are recommended.
During furosemide treatment, your doctor will regularly check your blood levels of potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, kidney function (creatinine, urea), and uric acid. If you experience vomiting, diarrhea, or excessive sweating, contact your doctor promptly as these can worsen electrolyte imbalances.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
Furosemide crosses the placental barrier and may affect fetal development and electrolyte balance. It should only be used during pregnancy when the potential benefit clearly outweighs the risk to the fetus, and only under close medical supervision. Animal studies have shown potential adverse effects, and the drug may reduce placental perfusion.
Furosemide passes into breast milk and may suppress lactation. For this reason, breastfeeding is contraindicated during furosemide therapy. If diuretic treatment is essential, the decision should be made together with your doctor about whether to discontinue breastfeeding or to use an alternative medication.
Driving and Operating Machinery
Furosemide can cause dizziness, lightheadedness, and blood pressure drops, particularly at the beginning of treatment, when increasing the dose, or when used in combination with other blood pressure-lowering medications. These effects can impair your ability to drive vehicles or operate machinery safely. You should assess how the medication affects you individually before engaging in activities that require alertness and quick reflexes.
How Does Furosemide Interact with Other Drugs?
Quick Answer: Furosemide interacts with many medications. The most dangerous combinations include aminoglycoside antibiotics (increased hearing and kidney damage), digoxin (increased toxicity from low potassium), lithium (toxic levels), and NSAIDs (reduced diuretic effect and worsened kidney function).
Furosemide has a wide range of drug interactions that can affect both its efficacy and safety. Because it causes significant changes in electrolyte balance and kidney function, it can amplify or diminish the effects of many other medications. Always inform your prescriber about all medications you are taking, including over-the-counter drugs, herbal supplements, and large amounts of licorice.
Major Interactions – Avoid or Use with Extreme Caution
| Drug / Class | Interaction | Clinical Consequence |
|---|---|---|
| Aminoglycosides (gentamicin, tobramycin) | Additive ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity | Increased risk of irreversible hearing loss and kidney damage. Avoid combination when possible. |
| Ethacrynic acid | Additive ototoxicity | Significantly increased risk of hearing damage. Do not combine. |
| Chloral hydrate | Displacement of thyroid hormone from protein binding | Risk of flushing, sweating, tachycardia. Avoid combination. |
| Risperidone | Increased mortality in elderly with dementia | Increased risk of death reported in elderly patients with dementia-related psychosis. Use with caution. |
| Cisplatin | Additive nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity | Increased risk of hearing loss and kidney damage. Monitor closely. |
Moderate Interactions – May Require Dose Adjustment
| Drug / Class | Interaction | Clinical Consequence |
|---|---|---|
| ACE inhibitors / ARBs (enalapril, losartan) | Additive hypotension; risk of acute kidney injury | First-dose hypotension may be severe. Start ACE inhibitor at low dose; monitor blood pressure and renal function. |
| Digoxin | Hypokalemia increases digoxin toxicity | Risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmias. Monitor potassium closely; maintain K+ > 4.0 mmol/L. |
| Lithium | Reduced lithium excretion | Lithium toxicity with cardiac and neurological symptoms. Monitor lithium levels frequently. |
| NSAIDs (ibuprofen, naproxen) | Reduced diuretic effect; additive nephrotoxicity | Decreased fluid removal; worsened kidney function. Avoid prolonged NSAID use. |
| Methotrexate | Reduced methotrexate excretion | Increased methotrexate toxicity (bone marrow suppression). Monitor blood counts. |
| Corticosteroids | Additive potassium loss | Increased risk of hypokalemia. Monitor potassium levels. |
| Antidiabetic drugs | Furosemide impairs glucose tolerance | Higher blood sugar. May need to increase antidiabetic dose. |
| Phenytoin | Reduced furosemide absorption | Decreased diuretic effect. May need higher furosemide dose. |
| Ciclosporin | Additive nephrotoxicity; increased risk of gout | Monitor kidney function and uric acid levels closely. |
| Theophylline | Altered theophylline levels | May increase or decrease theophylline effect. Monitor levels. |
| Sucralfate | Reduced furosemide absorption | Take furosemide at least 2 hours before sucralfate. |
| Laxatives (chronic use) / Licorice | Additive potassium depletion | Severe hypokalemia risk. Avoid chronic laxative use and large amounts of licorice. |
Furosemide may reduce the response to vasopressors such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). It may also enhance the effects of curare-type muscle relaxants. If you are undergoing surgery, inform your anesthesiologist that you take furosemide.
What Is the Correct Dosage of Furosemide?
Quick Answer: The typical adult oral dose for edema is 20–80 mg per day, which can be increased as needed. For heart failure, doses may range from 20 mg to over 250 mg daily. Furosemide is best taken in the morning to avoid nighttime urination. Dosage must be individualized by your doctor.
Furosemide dosing is highly individualized based on the clinical indication, severity of fluid overload, kidney function, and the patient's response. The goal is to use the lowest effective dose that achieves adequate fluid balance while minimizing side effects. The following dosage information is based on established clinical guidelines and should be considered general guidance – always follow your doctor's specific instructions.
Adults
| Indication | Starting Dose | Typical Range | Maximum Dose |
|---|---|---|---|
| Edema (heart failure) | 20–80 mg/day | 40–240 mg/day | 600 mg/day |
| Edema (liver cirrhosis) | 20–40 mg/day | 40–80 mg/day | 160 mg/day |
| Edema (kidney disease) | 40–80 mg/day | 80–250 mg/day | Up to 2000 mg/day in severe CKD |
| Hypertension | 20–40 mg twice daily | 40–80 mg/day | 80 mg/day |
Furosemide can be given as a single daily dose or divided into two doses. When taken once daily, it should be taken in the morning to minimize nighttime urination. When a second dose is needed, it is best taken in the early afternoon (no later than 4 PM). The dose may be increased gradually every 6 to 8 hours until the desired response is achieved.
For intravenous administration in acute settings (such as acute pulmonary edema), the typical starting dose is 20 to 40 mg given slowly over 1 to 2 minutes. The dose can be repeated or increased after 2 hours if the response is inadequate. Continuous IV infusion at 1 to 4 mg/hour may be used in hospitalized patients with severe heart failure. The IV infusion rate should not exceed 4 mg/minute to reduce the risk of ototoxicity.
Children
In pediatric patients, the oral dose is typically 1 to 2 mg/kg body weight per day, with a maximum of 40 mg/day. Intravenous dosing in children is 0.5 to 1 mg/kg, not to exceed 20 mg per dose. Pediatric dosing should always be determined and supervised by a pediatrician or pediatric nephrologist. Close monitoring of fluid balance and electrolytes is especially important in young children.
Elderly Patients
Older adults are particularly vulnerable to the effects of furosemide due to age-related decline in kidney function, reduced body water, and concurrent medications. Treatment should begin with the lowest effective dose (e.g., 20 mg/day) and be increased cautiously. Frequent monitoring of blood pressure (including standing blood pressure to detect orthostatic hypotension), electrolytes, and kidney function is essential. Dehydration in elderly patients can lead to confusion, falls, acute kidney injury, and blood clots.
Missed Dose
If you miss a dose of furosemide, take it as soon as you remember, provided it is not close to bedtime (as it will cause nighttime urination). If it is already evening, skip the missed dose and resume your normal schedule the next morning. Do not take a double dose to make up for the missed one, as this can cause excessive fluid loss and dangerous drops in blood pressure and electrolyte levels.
Overdose
An overdose of furosemide can cause severe dehydration, dangerous electrolyte disturbances (especially critically low potassium), very low blood pressure leading to circulatory shock, acute kidney failure, and impaired consciousness. If you suspect an overdose, contact emergency services or your local poison control center immediately. Treatment is supportive and focuses on fluid and electrolyte replacement.
What Are the Side Effects of Furosemide?
Quick Answer: The most common side effects are electrolyte imbalances (low potassium, sodium, magnesium), dehydration, elevated blood lipids, and increased uric acid. Less common effects include hearing problems, nausea, skin reactions, and blood sugar changes. Rare but serious effects include severe allergic reactions, blood disorders, and pancreatitis.
Like all medications, furosemide can cause side effects, although not everyone experiences them. The likelihood and severity of side effects depend on the dose, duration of treatment, kidney function, and concurrent medications. Most side effects are related to the drug's potent diuretic action and the resulting fluid and electrolyte changes. Regular blood monitoring helps detect and prevent serious complications before they become clinically significant.
Very Common (affects more than 1 in 10 people)
These occur frequently and are usually detected through routine blood tests
- Electrolyte disturbances: Low potassium (hypokalemia), low sodium (hyponatremia), low chloride – may cause fatigue, headache, dizziness, muscle cramps
- Dehydration and reduced blood volume (hypovolemia) – especially in elderly patients
- Elevated blood creatinine – may indicate reduced kidney function
- Elevated blood triglycerides (a type of blood fat) – increases cardiovascular risk with long-term use
Common (affects 1 in 10 to 1 in 100 people)
Occurring regularly but less frequently
- Elevated uric acid (hyperuricemia) – may trigger gout attacks with painful, swollen joints
- Elevated blood cholesterol – increases cardiovascular risk
- Increased urine output (polyuria) – the intended therapeutic effect
- Hemoconcentration – thickened blood due to fluid loss, increasing blood clot risk
- Hepatic encephalopathy in patients with impaired liver function
- Gout attacks in predisposed individuals
Uncommon (affects 1 in 100 to 1 in 1,000 people)
Occurring infrequently
- Nausea
- Hearing impairment – usually reversible, dose-related
- Low platelet count (thrombocytopenia) – increased bruising and bleeding tendency
- Skin reactions: itching, hives, blisters, redness, photosensitivity
- Impaired glucose tolerance – elevated blood sugar; risk of developing diabetes
- Deafness (sometimes permanent) – particularly with rapid IV administration
Rare (affects 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 10,000 people)
Occurring rarely
- Vomiting and diarrhea
- Vasculitis (inflammation of blood vessels)
- Nephritis (kidney inflammation) with fever and pain
- Tinnitus (ringing in the ears)
- Paraesthesia (tingling, numbness, pins-and-needles sensations)
- Low white blood cell count (leukopenia) – increased infection risk
- Fever
Very Rare (affects fewer than 1 in 10,000 people)
Occurring very rarely
- Acute pancreatitis – severe upper abdominal pain, vomiting, fever
- Elevated liver enzymes
- Intrahepatic cholestasis (bile duct obstruction)
- Bone marrow suppression and anemia
- Very slow heart rate (bradycardia) – when given by IV infusion
Frequency Not Known
Reported but frequency cannot be estimated from available data
- Metabolic alkalosis (high blood pH) – can cause serious complications
- Low calcium and magnesium – may increase osteoporosis risk
- Blood clots (thrombosis) – due to hemoconcentration
- Urinary retention (difficulty urinating)
- Worsened kidney function
- Severe skin reactions including Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis
- AGEP (acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis) – sudden widespread pustular rash with fever
- Pseudo-Bartter syndrome with chronic overuse
- Worsening or reactivation of SLE
- Dizziness, fainting, and loss of consciousness from low blood pressure
- Signs of severe allergic reaction: skin rash, facial swelling, fever, difficulty breathing, blood pressure drop (dizziness, fainting) – call emergency services immediately
- Signs of bone marrow suppression: fever with severely worsened general condition, sore throat, mouth ulcers, or urinary symptoms – seek urgent medical attention for blood count testing
- Unexplained muscle pain, cramps, or weakness – may indicate severe electrolyte disturbances
- Severe or persistent hearing changes
How Should You Store Furosemide?
Quick Answer: Store furosemide at room temperature below 25°C (77°F), protected from light and moisture. Keep in the original packaging. Do not use after the expiration date. Keep out of reach of children.
Proper storage ensures that furosemide retains its potency and safety throughout its shelf life. Follow these guidelines carefully:
- Temperature: Store at or below 25°C (77°F). Do not freeze. Avoid storing in bathrooms or other humid environments.
- Light protection: Furosemide is light-sensitive. Store tablets and solutions in the original packaging to protect from light exposure.
- Moisture: Keep the container tightly closed. Do not remove tablets from blister packs until ready to take them.
- Expiration: Do not use furosemide after the expiry date printed on the packaging (the last day of the stated month).
- Keep out of reach: Store out of sight and reach of children at all times.
- Disposal: Do not dispose of medications via wastewater or household waste. Return unused medication to your pharmacy for safe disposal in order to protect the environment.
For furosemide injection solutions, additional precautions apply: the solution should be clear and colorless to slightly yellow. Do not use if the solution is discolored, turbid, or contains particles. Once opened, ampoules should be used immediately and any remaining solution discarded.
What Does Furosemide Contain?
Quick Answer: The active substance is furosemide. Tablet formulations contain furosemide plus inactive ingredients (excipients) such as lactose, corn starch, and magnesium stearate. Injection solutions contain furosemide dissolved in water for injection with sodium hydroxide and sodium chloride.
Understanding what furosemide contains helps patients identify potential allergens or intolerances. The exact excipients vary by manufacturer, so always check the patient information leaflet supplied with your specific product.
Tablet Formulation
- Active substance: Furosemide (20 mg or 40 mg per tablet, depending on the strength)
- Common excipients: Lactose monohydrate, corn starch (maize starch), pregelatinized starch, colloidal anhydrous silica, magnesium stearate, talc. Note: patients with lactose intolerance should be aware that many furosemide tablets contain lactose.
Oral Solution
- Active substance: Furosemide 10 mg per ml
- Common excipients: Sorbitol, sodium benzoate, citric acid, purified water, and flavoring agents. Note: the oral solution is useful for patients who have difficulty swallowing tablets and for precise dose titration in children.
Injection Solution
- Active substance: Furosemide 10 mg per ml
- Excipients: Sodium hydroxide (for pH adjustment), sodium chloride, and water for injections
- Appearance: Clear solution, colorless to slightly yellow
- Available pack sizes: Ampoules of 2 ml (20 mg), 4 ml (40 mg), and 25 ml (250 mg)
Furosemide is available under numerous brand names worldwide, including Impugan, Furosemid Hexal, Furosemid Teva, Furosemid Accord, Furosemide Kalceks, Furosemide Basi, and Furosemid Medical Valley. In the United States, the well-known brand name Lasix was formerly widely used. All branded and generic versions contain the same active ingredient and are therapeutically equivalent when used at the same dose.
Frequently Asked Questions About Furosemide
Furosemide is a loop diuretic used primarily to treat fluid retention (edema) caused by heart failure, liver cirrhosis, or kidney disease. It is also used to manage high blood pressure (hypertension) and acute pulmonary edema. It works by acting on the kidneys to increase the excretion of water and salts. Furosemide is on the WHO Essential Medicines List, highlighting its importance in global healthcare.
Oral furosemide begins to work within 30 to 60 minutes, reaching its peak effect at 1 to 2 hours and lasting for 4 to 6 hours. Intravenous furosemide is much faster, acting within 5 minutes with a peak effect at approximately 30 minutes and a duration of about 2 hours. This rapid onset makes it particularly useful for acute emergencies like pulmonary edema.
The most common side effects are electrolyte imbalances (particularly low potassium, sodium, and magnesium), dehydration, elevated blood lipids (triglycerides and cholesterol), and increased uric acid levels. These are often detected through routine blood tests rather than symptoms. Symptomatic effects may include fatigue, dizziness, headache, muscle cramps, and increased urination. Your doctor will monitor your blood levels regularly to detect and manage these effects.
Furosemide should only be used during pregnancy if the potential benefit clearly outweighs the risk to the fetus, as it crosses the placental barrier and may affect fetal development. Breastfeeding is contraindicated during furosemide treatment because the drug passes into breast milk and may suppress milk production. Always consult your doctor before using furosemide if you are pregnant, planning to become pregnant, or breastfeeding.
The most dangerous interactions include aminoglycoside antibiotics (e.g., gentamicin) due to increased risk of irreversible hearing loss and kidney damage. NSAIDs (e.g., ibuprofen) reduce the diuretic effect and may worsen kidney function. Digoxin toxicity risk increases because furosemide can lower potassium levels. Lithium levels may rise to toxic concentrations. Cisplatin toxicity is also potentiated. Always inform your doctor about all medications, supplements, and herbal products you use.
Yes, Lasix is one of the best-known brand names for furosemide. Other brand names include Impugan, Furosemid Hexal, Furosemid Teva, and Furosemid Accord. All versions contain the same active ingredient (furosemide) and are therapeutically equivalent. The choice between brands is typically based on availability and cost in your region.
References & Medical Sources
All information on this page is based on peer-reviewed medical literature, official prescribing information, and international clinical guidelines. No commercial funding was involved in the creation of this content.
- McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, et al. 2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure (2023 focused update). European Heart Journal. 2023;44(37):3627-3639. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad195
- World Health Organization. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines – 23rd list. Geneva: WHO; 2023.
- European Medicines Agency. Furosemide – Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC). EMA; 2024.
- Ellison DH, Felker GM. Diuretic Treatment in Heart Failure. New England Journal of Medicine. 2017;377(20):1964-1975. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1703100
- Brater DC. Pharmacology of Diuretics. American Journal of the Medical Sciences. 2000;319(1):38-50.
- National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Chronic heart failure in adults: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline [NG106]. Updated 2023.
- British National Formulary (BNF). Furosemide. NICE BNF; 2025.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Furosemide – FDA Prescribing Information. FDA; 2024.
- European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL). Clinical Practice Guidelines on the management of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Journal of Hepatology. 2018;69(2):406-460.
- Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO). Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney International Supplements. 2024;14(4S).
Medical Editorial Team
This article was written and reviewed by the iMedic Medical Editorial Team, consisting of licensed physicians specializing in clinical pharmacology, internal medicine, cardiology, and nephrology. Our content follows the GRADE evidence framework and adheres to international clinical guidelines from the WHO, ESC, EMA, FDA, NICE, and BNF.
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