Doktacillin (Ampicillin)
Penicillin antibiotic for serious bacterial infections — injectable formulation
Quick Facts About Doktacillin
Key Takeaways About Doktacillin
- Hospital antibiotic: Doktacillin (ampicillin) is given by injection or infusion in a healthcare setting — it is not a medicine you take at home
- Penicillin allergy is a contraindication: Never receive Doktacillin if you are allergic to penicillin; cephalosporin allergy also warrants caution due to possible cross-reactivity
- Broad-spectrum but targeted: Effective against many gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria, but resistance monitoring (EUCAST) is essential
- Watch for colitis: Watery diarrhea (especially with blood) during or after treatment may indicate Clostridioides difficile colitis — seek medical attention immediately
- Contains sodium: Each 1 g vial contains 65.8 mg sodium (3.3% of maximum daily intake) — relevant for patients on sodium-restricted diets
What Is Doktacillin and What Is It Used For?
Doktacillin is a brand-name injectable antibiotic containing ampicillin, a broad-spectrum aminopenicillin. It is used to treat serious bacterial infections where oral antibiotics are insufficient, including septicaemia (bloodstream infection), infective endocarditis, Listeria meningitis, severe neonatal infections, upper urinary tract infections, and pneumonia.
Ampicillin belongs to the aminopenicillin subclass of beta-lactam antibiotics, which have been a cornerstone of antimicrobial therapy since their development in the 1960s. Unlike the original penicillin G, ampicillin has a broader spectrum of activity that extends to certain gram-negative organisms, including some strains of Escherichia coli, Haemophilus influenzae, and Salmonella species. This broader coverage made ampicillin one of the most widely used antibiotics worldwide, and it remains on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.
The mechanism of action of ampicillin involves binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) located inside the bacterial cell wall. These proteins are enzymes responsible for cross-linking the peptidoglycan chains that give the cell wall its structural integrity. When ampicillin binds to PBPs, it inhibits this cross-linking process, weakening the cell wall. As the bacterium continues to grow and divide, the weakened cell wall cannot withstand the internal osmotic pressure, ultimately leading to cell lysis and death. This mechanism is bactericidal, meaning it kills bacteria rather than merely stopping their growth.
Doktacillin is specifically formulated as a powder for reconstitution into a solution for injection or infusion. It is available in 1 g and 2 g vials and is manufactured by Sandoz GmbH (Austria) under marketing authorisation held by Viatris. The injectable formulation allows for rapid achievement of therapeutic blood levels, which is critical in life-threatening infections such as septicaemia and meningitis.
Approved Indications
Doktacillin is approved for the treatment of the following conditions when caused by ampicillin-susceptible organisms:
- Acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis — when other penicillins have failed or are unsuitable for other reasons
- Upper urinary tract infection (pyelonephritis) — bacterial kidney infection requiring parenteral therapy
- Infective endocarditis — infection of the heart valves, often caused by Enterococcus species
- Septicaemia (bloodstream infection) — a potentially life-threatening systemic infection
- Listeria meningitis — meningitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes, for which ampicillin is considered the drug of choice
- Severe neonatal infections — empirical treatment of suspected early-onset neonatal sepsis, often combined with an aminoglycoside
- Pneumonia — when first-line penicillins are ineffective or contraindicated
Ampicillin resistance has increased significantly among many bacterial species over recent decades. According to EUCAST surveillance data, resistance rates among E. coli isolates exceed 40–50% in many European countries. Susceptibility testing should always be performed before or during treatment to ensure the infecting organism is sensitive to ampicillin. Empirical use should follow local antibiogram data and national prescribing guidelines.
What Should You Know Before Receiving Doktacillin?
Doktacillin must not be given to anyone with a known allergy to ampicillin or other penicillins. Special caution is required for patients with cephalosporin allergy, a history of antibiotic-associated colitis, or those on sodium-restricted diets. Always inform your healthcare provider about all medications you are taking.
Contraindications
There is one absolute contraindication for Doktacillin: known allergy (hypersensitivity) to ampicillin or any other penicillin antibiotic. Penicillin allergy is one of the most commonly reported drug allergies, affecting approximately 8–10% of the general population who self-report it, although true IgE-mediated penicillin allergy has been confirmed in only about 1–2% of the population after formal evaluation with skin testing.
Penicillin allergy can manifest in different ways. Immediate hypersensitivity (type I) reactions, which are IgE-mediated, typically occur within minutes to hours of drug administration and can range from urticaria (hives) to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Delayed reactions (type IV) may present as maculopapular rash days after starting treatment. Both types of reactions are important to identify and document, but immediate reactions carry the greatest risk and represent an absolute contraindication to further penicillin use.
Severe allergic reactions (anaphylaxis) can occur with any penicillin antibiotic, including ampicillin. Anaphylaxis is a medical emergency. Signs include skin flushing, itchy hives (urticaria), difficulty breathing, and dizziness. Although rare (affecting up to 1 in 1,000 patients), it can be fatal if not treated immediately with epinephrine. Healthcare facilities administering Doktacillin must have resuscitation equipment and epinephrine readily available.
Warnings and Precautions
Before receiving Doktacillin, inform your healthcare provider if any of the following apply to you:
- Cephalosporin allergy: There is a small but clinically relevant risk of cross-reactivity between penicillins and cephalosporins (estimated at 1–2% for first-generation cephalosporins). If you have previously experienced an allergic reaction to any cephalosporin antibiotic, extra caution is warranted.
- History of antibiotic-associated colitis: Ampicillin, like other broad-spectrum antibiotics, can disrupt the normal gut flora and allow overgrowth of Clostridioides difficile (formerly Clostridium difficile), leading to pseudomembranous colitis. This condition presents with watery diarrhea (often containing blood and mucus), abdominal pain, and fever. If these symptoms develop during or after treatment, contact your healthcare provider immediately, as this condition can be serious.
- Renal impairment: Ampicillin is primarily eliminated by the kidneys. In patients with significantly reduced kidney function, dosage adjustments may be necessary to prevent drug accumulation and increased risk of side effects, including neurotoxicity at very high concentrations.
- Mononucleosis: Patients with infectious mononucleosis (Epstein-Barr virus infection) who receive ampicillin develop a widespread maculopapular skin rash in up to 90–100% of cases. This reaction is not a true penicillin allergy but should be noted. Ampicillin should be avoided in patients with known or suspected mononucleosis.
Effect on Urine Tests
Doktacillin can cause false-positive results in certain types of urine glucose tests (non-enzymatic methods such as Benedict's solution or Clinitest). If you need to have your urine tested for glucose, inform the laboratory or healthcare professional that you are receiving ampicillin. Enzymatic glucose oxidase methods (such as Clinistix) are not affected.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
Ampicillin is generally regarded as one of the safer antibiotics to use during pregnancy. It has been in widespread clinical use for over 60 years, and extensive observational data have not shown an increased risk of congenital malformations or adverse fetal outcomes. Ampicillin is classified in the former FDA Pregnancy Category B (animal studies have not shown fetal risk, and there are no adequate, well-controlled studies in pregnant women, but the benefit may warrant use).
In fact, intravenous ampicillin is specifically recommended as the drug of choice for intrapartum Group B Streptococcus (GBS) prophylaxis in penicillin-allergic patients who are assessed as low-risk for anaphylaxis, and for treatment of Listeria infections during pregnancy, which pose a severe risk to the fetus. Nevertheless, as with all medications during pregnancy, Doktacillin should only be used when clearly needed and under medical supervision.
Ampicillin is excreted in breast milk in small amounts. While this is unlikely to cause significant adverse effects in the breastfed infant, there is a theoretical risk of sensitisation or disruption of the infant's gut flora. Monitor the infant for signs of diarrhea, rash, or oral thrush. Consult your healthcare provider if you are breastfeeding.
Sodium Content
Doktacillin contains clinically relevant amounts of sodium, which should be considered for patients on sodium-restricted diets (e.g., those with heart failure, renal disease, or hypertension):
- Doktacillin 1 g: 65.8 mg sodium per vial (3.3% of the WHO recommended maximum daily intake of 2 g sodium for adults)
- Doktacillin 2 g: 131.6 mg sodium per vial (6.6% of the maximum daily intake)
For patients receiving multiple daily doses of Doktacillin (e.g., 2 g four times daily), the total sodium intake from the medication alone can amount to approximately 526 mg per day, which is over 26% of the maximum recommended daily sodium intake. This should be factored into the patient's overall sodium management plan.
How Does Doktacillin Interact with Other Drugs?
Doktacillin has clinically significant interactions with allopurinol (increased rash risk) and methotrexate (increased toxicity). It may also interfere with urine glucose testing and potentially reduce the efficacy of oral contraceptives. Always inform your healthcare team about all medications you are taking.
Drug interactions can alter the effectiveness of a medication or increase the risk of adverse effects. While ampicillin has fewer drug interactions than many other antibiotics, the following interactions are clinically important and should be considered whenever Doktacillin is prescribed:
| Interacting Drug | Effect | Clinical Significance | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|---|
| Allopurinol | Increased risk of allergic skin rash (ampicillin rash) | Moderate — rash incidence may increase from ~5% to ~20% | Monitor for rash; consider alternative antibiotic if rash develops |
| Methotrexate | Reduced renal clearance of methotrexate, increased toxicity | Major — risk of methotrexate toxicity (bone marrow suppression, mucositis) | Monitor methotrexate levels closely; consider dose adjustment |
| Oral anticoagulants (warfarin) | Possible increased anticoagulant effect due to reduced vitamin K production by gut flora | Moderate — variable effect, primarily with prolonged courses | Monitor INR more frequently during and after ampicillin therapy |
| Probenecid | Decreased renal tubular secretion of ampicillin, resulting in higher and prolonged serum levels | Moderate — may be used therapeutically to increase ampicillin levels | Dose adjustment may be needed; this interaction is sometimes used intentionally |
| Oral contraceptives | Potential reduction in contraceptive efficacy (theoretical, based on disruption of enterohepatic circulation of ethinylestradiol) | Low to Moderate — evidence is limited and conflicting | Consider additional contraceptive methods during and for 7 days after antibiotic treatment |
Major Interactions
The most clinically significant interaction is with methotrexate. Ampicillin (and other penicillins) can reduce the renal tubular secretion of methotrexate, leading to higher plasma concentrations and increased risk of methotrexate toxicity. This is particularly concerning in patients receiving high-dose methotrexate for cancer treatment, where even small increases in drug levels can lead to severe bone marrow suppression, hepatotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity. When co-administration is unavoidable, frequent monitoring of methotrexate serum levels, renal function, and blood counts is essential.
Minor Interactions
The interaction with allopurinol (used for gout) is well-documented but generally of moderate clinical significance. Concurrent use of allopurinol and ampicillin approximately doubles the incidence of skin rash. The mechanism is not fully understood but may involve immunological factors related to allopurinol's effect on purine metabolism. The rash is typically maculopapular and non-serious, but can be uncomfortable. If a rash develops, it can be difficult to determine whether it represents a true penicillin allergy or an allopurinol-ampicillin interaction, which may complicate future antibiotic prescribing.
Driving and Operating Machinery
There is no evidence that Doktacillin affects the ability to drive or operate machinery. However, as Doktacillin is an injectable medication administered in healthcare settings, most patients receiving it are hospitalised and this consideration is generally not immediately relevant. If you experience any side effects that could impair your alertness, avoid driving or operating heavy machinery until you feel well enough to do so safely.
What Is the Correct Dosage of Doktacillin?
Doktacillin is administered by healthcare professionals as an intravenous or intramuscular injection. The dosage is individualised based on the type and severity of infection, patient weight, and renal function. Typical adult doses range from 1–2 g every 4–6 hours. Neonatal and paediatric doses are calculated based on body weight.
Doktacillin dosing is always determined by a physician and administered by trained healthcare personnel. The following information is provided for educational purposes. Actual doses may vary based on local prescribing guidelines, the specific infection being treated, bacterial susceptibility data, and individual patient factors such as body weight, renal function, and severity of illness.
| Indication | Route | Typical Adult Dose | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Septicaemia | IV | 2 g every 4–6 hours | Often combined with aminoglycoside; adjust based on susceptibility |
| Infective endocarditis | IV | 2 g every 4 hours (12 g/day) | Usually 4–6 weeks duration; often combined with gentamicin for synergy |
| Listeria meningitis | IV | 2 g every 4 hours | Ampicillin is drug of choice; often combined with gentamicin |
| Upper UTI (pyelonephritis) | IV/IM | 1–2 g every 6 hours | Only if susceptibility confirmed; step down to oral when clinically appropriate |
| Neonatal sepsis | IV | 50–100 mg/kg/day in divided doses | Dosing interval depends on gestational/postnatal age; usually combined with gentamicin |
| GBS prophylaxis (intrapartum) | IV | 2 g initially, then 1 g every 4 hours until delivery | Alternative to penicillin G for GBS prophylaxis |
Administration Methods
Doktacillin must be reconstituted (dissolved) from its powder form before administration. The method of reconstitution depends on the intended route:
Intramuscular (IM) Injection
Dissolve 1 g in 4 mL of water for injections. Administer by deep intramuscular injection. IM injection may cause local pain at the injection site.
Intravenous (IV) Injection
Dissolve 1 g in 10 mL or 2 g in 20 mL of water for injections. Administer by slow intravenous injection over 3–5 minutes.
Intermittent IV Infusion
Dissolve 1 g in 100 mL of isotonic sodium chloride solution, or 2 g in 100 mL of water for injections or isotonic sodium chloride solution. Infuse at a steady rate over 20–30 minutes.
Continuous IV Infusion
Dissolve 2 g in 15 mL of water for injections. Add the solution to a suitable infusion fluid (isotonic sodium chloride, Ringer-acetate, or glucose solutions). Compatible infusion fluids include 5% glucose, glucose with sodium and potassium, and Ringer-acetate with glucose.
Children
Paediatric dosing of ampicillin is weight-based and varies significantly depending on the indication, the age of the child, and the severity of the infection. For neonates, dosing intervals are typically longer (every 8–12 hours) due to immature renal function, and dosing is adjusted based on both gestational age and postnatal age. For older children, typical doses range from 100–200 mg/kg/day divided into four to six doses for serious infections. Paediatric infectious disease guidelines (such as those from the British National Formulary for Children or the AAP Red Book) should be consulted for specific recommendations.
Elderly
No specific dose adjustment is routinely required for elderly patients with normal renal function. However, age-related decline in renal function is common, and creatinine clearance should be assessed. In patients with significant renal impairment, dose reduction or extended dosing intervals may be necessary. Elderly patients may also be at increased risk of Clostridioides difficile infection and should be monitored accordingly.
Missed Dose
As Doktacillin is administered by healthcare professionals in a clinical setting, missed doses are uncommon. If a dose is inadvertently missed, it should be given as soon as possible. Do not double the next dose to make up for a missed one. The treating physician will determine the best course of action based on the specific clinical situation.
Overdose
Ampicillin overdose can cause the following symptoms:
- Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea
- Reduced level of consciousness
- Involuntary muscle twitching (myoclonus)
- Seizures (convulsions)
- Coma (in extreme cases)
- Acute kidney injury
In very rare cases, a severe acute anaphylactic reaction may occur within 20–40 minutes of overdose. Treatment of ampicillin overdose is supportive and symptomatic. Ampicillin can be removed by haemodialysis. In case of suspected overdose, contact your local poison control centre or emergency medical services immediately.
What Are the Side Effects of Doktacillin?
Like all antibiotics, Doktacillin can cause side effects, though not everyone experiences them. Common side effects include diarrhea and skin rash. Uncommon side effects include nausea, vomiting, blood count changes, and hives. Rare but serious side effects include anaphylaxis, severe skin reactions, and pseudomembranous colitis.
Side effects are classified by frequency according to the European regulatory convention. The frequencies reported below are based on clinical trial data and post-marketing surveillance reports. It is important to note that the actual incidence of side effects may vary depending on the dose, duration of treatment, and individual patient factors.
Severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis) — skin flushing, itchy hives spreading across the body, difficulty breathing, dizziness, and/or swelling of the face or throat. This is a medical emergency. Severe watery diarrhea with blood and/or mucus, abdominal pain, and fever during or after treatment may indicate pseudomembranous colitis and requires urgent medical evaluation.
Common
May affect up to 1 in 10 people
- Loose stools / diarrhea
- Skin rash (maculopapular)
Uncommon
May affect up to 1 in 100 people
- Anaemia (decreased red blood cells)
- Thrombocytopenia (decreased platelets)
- Leukopenia (decreased white blood cells)
- Eosinophilia (increased eosinophils)
- Glossitis and stomatitis (inflammation of the tongue and mouth lining)
- Nausea and vomiting
- Pseudomembranous colitis (C. difficile infection)
- Urticaria (hives)
- Agranulocytosis (severe decrease in white blood cells, with fever and increased infection susceptibility)
Rare
May affect up to 1 in 1,000 people
- Anaphylaxis (severe allergic reaction — potentially life-threatening)
- Exfoliative dermatitis (severe skin inflammation with peeling)
- Erythema multiforme (serious skin condition with target-like lesions)
- Oral or vaginal candidiasis (fungal overgrowth / thrush)
- Elevated liver enzymes (transaminases)
- Local pain at intramuscular injection site
Agranulocytosis Warning
Doktacillin can, in uncommon cases, affect white blood cell counts and weaken the body's ability to fight infections. If you develop symptoms such as high fever with severely impaired general condition, or fever with localised signs of infection (such as sore throat, mouth sores, or difficulty urinating), seek medical attention promptly so that a blood test can be performed to check your white blood cell count. Be sure to inform the healthcare team that you are receiving ampicillin.
Reporting Side Effects
Reporting suspected adverse reactions after marketing authorisation is important for ongoing monitoring of the medicine's benefit-risk balance. Healthcare professionals and patients are encouraged to report any suspected side effects to their national pharmacovigilance authority (e.g., the MHRA in the UK, the FDA MedWatch programme in the US, or the EMA EudraVigilance system in Europe).
How Should You Store Doktacillin?
Store Doktacillin in its original packaging at room temperature, protected from moisture. The reconstituted solution should be used immediately after preparation. Do not use the medicine after the expiry date stated on the packaging.
Doktacillin in its powder form (before reconstitution) should be stored at room temperature below 25°C, in the original packaging to protect from moisture. Keep out of the reach and sight of children.
Once reconstituted, the solution should be used immediately. This is critical because ampicillin in solution is unstable and loses potency over time. Freshly prepared solutions may have a slightly yellowish colour, which is normal and does not indicate degradation. However, if the solution is cloudy or contains visible particles, it should not be used.
Solutions intended for infusion should be added to the infusion fluid immediately after reconstitution. Do not store reconstituted or diluted solutions for later use.
Do not use Doktacillin after the expiry date (marked "EXP") on the carton and label. The expiry date refers to the last day of the stated month. Unused or expired medicines should be disposed of according to local regulations — do not flush them down the drain or throw them in household waste. Ask your pharmacist about proper disposal methods to protect the environment.
Do not add other substances to penicillin solutions unless compatibility has been established. Ampicillin is incompatible with certain intravenous solutions and drugs. The 1 g vial contains 3 mmol Na+, equivalent to approximately 20 mL of isotonic sodium chloride solution. Consult the product's Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) for detailed compatibility information.
What Does Doktacillin Contain?
Doktacillin contains ampicillin (as ampicillin sodium) as the sole active ingredient. There are no other excipients — each vial contains only the active substance. It is available as a white to off-white powder in 1 g and 2 g glass vials.
The formulation of Doktacillin is notably simple:
- Active substance: Ampicillin sodium — equivalent to 1 g or 2 g ampicillin per vial
- Other ingredients: None. The product contains only the active substance as ampicillin sodium salt.
The ampicillin sodium salt form is used because it is more water-soluble than the free acid form, allowing for rapid reconstitution and administration by injection. The sodium content (65.8 mg per 1 g vial; 131.6 mg per 2 g vial) is an inherent part of the ampicillin sodium molecule, not an added excipient.
Physical Appearance and Packaging
Doktacillin is a white to almost white powder. It is supplied in glass injection vials, with the following pack sizes:
- 10 × 1 g vials per package
- 10 × 2 g vials per package
The marketing authorisation holder is Viatris AB (Stockholm). The product is manufactured by Sandoz GmbH, Biochemiestrasse 10, A-6250 Kundl, Tirol, Austria.
Frequently Asked Questions About Doktacillin
Doktacillin (ampicillin) and amoxicillin are both aminopenicillins with a similar spectrum of activity, but they have important pharmacological differences. Amoxicillin has significantly better oral bioavailability (approximately 70–90%) compared to ampicillin (approximately 30–55%), which is why amoxicillin largely replaced ampicillin for oral use. However, ampicillin retains important roles in parenteral (injectable) therapy, particularly for conditions like Listeria meningitis, enterococcal endocarditis, and neonatal sepsis, where it remains a first-line treatment. When given intravenously, ampicillin achieves comparable or even higher peak serum levels than amoxicillin.
Doktacillin is an injectable antibiotic that is typically administered in a hospital or clinical setting by healthcare professionals. It is not available as an oral tablet or capsule for home use. In some cases, patients may receive outpatient parenteral antibiotic therapy (OPAT), where they receive intravenous antibiotics at home or in an outpatient clinic under the supervision of a specialist team. However, this is arranged by the treating physician and requires proper training, equipment, and monitoring. If you need antibiotic treatment at home, your doctor will likely prescribe an oral antibiotic such as amoxicillin instead.
The duration of Doktacillin treatment varies widely depending on the type and severity of infection. For uncomplicated infections such as pyelonephritis, treatment may last 7–14 days, with transition to oral antibiotics when clinically appropriate. For serious infections like infective endocarditis, treatment duration is typically 4–6 weeks of continuous intravenous therapy. Neonatal sepsis may require 7–21 days depending on the organism and clinical response. Listeria meningitis typically requires at least 21 days of treatment. Your treating physician will determine the appropriate duration based on your specific condition, clinical response, and laboratory results.
Antimicrobial resistance is a significant concern with ampicillin. Many common bacteria, particularly gram-negative organisms like E. coli and Klebsiella species, have developed high levels of resistance to ampicillin, primarily through production of beta-lactamase enzymes. EUCAST surveillance data show that ampicillin resistance among E. coli exceeds 40–50% in many countries. However, ampicillin remains highly effective against certain organisms, including Listeria monocytogenes (intrinsically susceptible), many Enterococcus faecalis strains, and Group B Streptococcus. Susceptibility testing should always guide treatment. For infections where beta-lactamase-producing organisms are suspected, combination with a beta-lactamase inhibitor (e.g., ampicillin/sulbactam) or an alternative antibiotic class is preferred.
Ampicillin is primarily eliminated by the kidneys, so dose adjustment may be necessary in patients with impaired renal function. In patients with severe renal impairment (creatinine clearance below 10 mL/min), the dosing interval should be extended to prevent drug accumulation. Ampicillin can be removed by haemodialysis, so supplemental doses may be required after dialysis sessions. Patients with mild to moderate renal impairment usually do not require dose adjustment but should be monitored for signs of toxicity. Your healthcare provider will assess your kidney function before and during treatment and adjust the dose accordingly.
All information on this page is based on the approved Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) for Doktacillin, supplemented by international medical guidelines and peer-reviewed references. Key sources include: the European Medicines Agency (EMA) regulatory documentation, WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (2023), the British National Formulary (BNF), EUCAST antimicrobial susceptibility testing standards, and published clinical practice guidelines for infectious disease management from organisations such as IDSA (Infectious Diseases Society of America) and ESCMID (European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases). All medical claims have evidence level 1A where applicable, the highest quality of evidence based on systematic reviews of randomised controlled trials.
References
- World Health Organization. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines — 23rd List (2023). Geneva: WHO; 2023. Available from: who.int
- European Medicines Agency. Summary of Product Characteristics — Ampicillin Sodium. EMA product database. Available from: ema.europa.eu
- British National Formulary (BNF). Ampicillin. NICE Evidence Services. Updated 2025. Available from: bnf.nice.org.uk
- European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). Breakpoint tables for interpretation of MICs and zone diameters. Version 14.0, 2024. Available from: eucast.org
- Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, et al. Infective Endocarditis in Adults: Diagnosis, Antimicrobial Therapy, and Management of Complications. Circulation. 2015;132(15):1435–1486. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000296
- Puopolo KM, Lynfield R, Cummings JJ; Committee on Fetus and Newborn; Committee on Infectious Diseases. Management of Infants at Risk for Group B Streptococcal Disease. Pediatrics. 2019;144(2):e20191881. doi:10.1542/peds.2019-1881
- Hof H, Nichterlein T, Kretschmar M. Management of listeriosis. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997;10(2):345–357. doi:10.1128/CMR.10.2.345
- Shenoy ES, Macy E, Rowe T, Blumenthal KG. Evaluation and Management of Penicillin Allergy: A Review. JAMA. 2019;321(2):188–199. doi:10.1001/jama.2018.19283
About Our Medical Editorial Team
This article was written and reviewed by the iMedic Medical Editorial Team, comprising licensed specialist physicians with expertise in pharmacology, infectious disease, and clinical microbiology. Our team follows the GRADE evidence framework and adheres to international medical guidelines from the WHO, EMA, and leading infectious disease societies.
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