Desmopressin STADA
Synthetic vasopressin analogue for diabetes insipidus, bedwetting and nocturia
Desmopressin STADA is a sublingual tablet containing desmopressin, a synthetic analogue of the naturally occurring antidiuretic hormone vasopressin. It is prescribed for central diabetes insipidus, primary nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) in children aged 5 and older, and nocturia (nighttime urination) in adults under 65. The sublingual formulation dissolves under the tongue without water, providing rapid absorption and reliable efficacy.
Quick Facts
Key Takeaways
- Desmopressin STADA is a sublingual tablet that mimics the natural hormone vasopressin to reduce urine production, used for central diabetes insipidus, bedwetting in children (5+), and nocturia in adults under 65.
- Fluid intake must be strictly limited from 1 hour before to 8 hours after taking the tablet to prevent potentially dangerous water retention and hyponatremia (low sodium).
- The sublingual formulation is placed under the tongue and dissolves without water; taking it with food may reduce effectiveness.
- Serious warning signs include headache, nausea, confusion, weight gain, and seizures, which may indicate hyponatremia requiring immediate medical attention.
- This medicine should not be used by patients aged 65 or older for nocturia, or by those with heart failure, moderate-to-severe kidney impairment, or habitual excessive drinking.
What Is Desmopressin STADA and What Is It Used For?
Quick Answer: Desmopressin STADA contains desmopressin, a synthetic version of the natural antidiuretic hormone vasopressin. It works by acting on the kidneys to concentrate urine and reduce urine output. It is prescribed for central diabetes insipidus, bedwetting in children, and nighttime urination in adults.
Desmopressin is a synthetic analogue of arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This naturally occurring hormone is produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland. Its primary role in the body is to regulate water balance by acting on the V2 receptors located in the renal collecting ducts. When these receptors are activated, aquaporin-2 water channels are inserted into the cell membranes of the collecting duct, allowing water to be reabsorbed from the urine back into the bloodstream. This process concentrates the urine and reduces overall urine volume.
Desmopressin has been structurally modified from natural vasopressin to enhance its antidiuretic activity while minimizing vasopressor (blood pressure-raising) effects. Specifically, the deamination at position 1 and substitution of D-arginine at position 8 give desmopressin approximately 10 times greater antidiuretic potency and a significantly longer duration of action (6–14 hours) compared to natural vasopressin, with only about 1/3000th of the vasopressor activity. These pharmacological properties make desmopressin particularly suitable for clinical use where water conservation is needed without significant cardiovascular side effects.
Central Diabetes Insipidus
Central diabetes insipidus (CDI) is a rare condition caused by insufficient production or secretion of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland. This deficiency can result from damage to the hypothalamus or pituitary gland due to neurosurgery, head trauma, tumors (such as craniopharyngioma), autoimmune destruction, or idiopathic causes. Without adequate vasopressin, the kidneys are unable to concentrate urine, leading to the hallmark symptoms: production of very large volumes of pale, dilute urine (polyuria, often exceeding 3 liters per day) and intense thirst (polydipsia). Desmopressin effectively replaces the missing hormone, restoring the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine and dramatically reducing urine output.
Primary Nocturnal Enuresis (Bedwetting)
Primary nocturnal enuresis (PNE) is the involuntary passage of urine during sleep in children aged 5 years and older who have never achieved consistent nighttime dryness. It affects approximately 5–10% of 7-year-olds and 1–2% of 15-year-olds. The condition is often associated with nocturnal polyuria (excessive urine production during the night), which may result from a relative deficiency of vasopressin secretion during sleep. Desmopressin addresses this by reducing nighttime urine production. According to the International Children's Continence Society (ICCS) and NICE guidelines, treatment should begin with behavioral interventions and bedwetting alarms; desmopressin is recommended when these measures are insufficient or when a rapid-onset treatment is needed, for example before sleepovers or school trips.
Nocturia in Adults
Nocturia, defined as the need to wake one or more times during the night to urinate, is a common and often distressing condition that significantly impacts quality of life and sleep. Desmopressin STADA is indicated for nocturia caused by nocturnal polyuria (where the volume of urine produced during the night exceeds normal proportions of total 24-hour urine output) in adults under 65 years of age. By reducing nighttime urine production, desmopressin allows patients to achieve longer uninterrupted sleep periods. The European Association of Urology (EAU) guidelines recognize desmopressin as an effective treatment option for nocturia due to nocturnal polyuria.
It is important to note that desmopressin may also be approved for other conditions not covered in this patient information, such as von Willebrand disease and mild hemophilia A (where the intravenous or intranasal formulations are typically used). Patients should always consult their prescribing physician or pharmacist for guidance specific to their condition and follow their treatment instructions carefully.
What Should You Know Before Taking Desmopressin STADA?
Quick Answer: Desmopressin STADA must not be used by patients with certain conditions including heart failure, moderate-to-severe kidney impairment, low sodium levels, or habitual excessive drinking. Fluid intake must be strictly limited during treatment. Special caution is needed for patients with coronary artery disease or high blood pressure.
Contraindications
You must not use Desmopressin STADA if any of the following apply to you:
- Allergy to desmopressin or any of the other ingredients in the tablet (listed in the Composition section)
- Polydipsia – a condition of abnormally high fluid intake, whether habitual or psychogenic
- Heart failure or other conditions that require treatment with diuretic (water-removing) medicines
- Moderate or severe kidney impairment (reduced kidney function)
- Hyponatremia – known low sodium levels in the blood
- Inability to follow fluid restriction guidelines as required by the treatment
- SIADH – syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion
- Age 65 or older if being treated for nocturia
- Children under 5 years for treatment of nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting)
Warnings and Precautions
For the treatment of bedwetting (nocturnal enuresis) in children, clinical guidelines recommend that treatment should start with behavioral measures (such as bladder training, regular toileting schedules, and limiting evening fluids) and bedwetting alarms. Desmopressin should be considered only when these measures have failed or when pharmacotherapy is specifically indicated.
Consult your doctor before taking Desmopressin STADA if you have:
- Coronary artery disease or high blood pressure (hypertension) – desmopressin may cause fluid retention that could exacerbate these conditions
- Thyroid disease or adrenal insufficiency – these conditions can affect fluid and electrolyte balance
- Risk of increased intracranial pressure – fluid retention may increase pressure inside the skull
- Any condition causing fluid or electrolyte imbalance – consult your doctor especially during acute illness
During treatment, watch carefully for these symptoms which may indicate dangerous hyponatremia (low sodium levels in the blood):
- Headache, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting
- Weight gain, bloating
- Confusion, difficulty concentrating
- Seizures (severe, involuntary muscle contractions)
For central diabetes insipidus: Reduce water intake and contact your doctor immediately. The doctor may reduce the dose or temporarily stop treatment.
For bedwetting or nocturia: Stop taking desmopressin, reduce fluid intake, and contact your doctor immediately.
During treatment of bedwetting and nocturia, fluid intake must be restricted to the minimum necessary to quench thirst during the period from 1 hour before to 8 hours after taking the tablet. If you develop an acute illness causing fever, vomiting, or diarrhea during treatment, you may be at increased risk of fluid and electrolyte disturbance. Consult your doctor for guidance.
Children and Adolescents
Treatment in children must always be given under the supervision of an adult. This medicine should not be given to children under 5 years of age for the treatment of bedwetting. Parents and caregivers should be trained to recognize the early warning signs of fluid overload, including headache, nausea, and unusual lethargy. The treating physician will review the need for continued treatment every three months, implementing a treatment-free period of at least one week to assess whether the child has achieved spontaneous dryness.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
If you are pregnant, breastfeeding, think you may be pregnant, or are planning to have a baby, consult your doctor or pharmacist before using this medicine. Clinical experience with desmopressin use during pregnancy is limited. Reproductive studies in animals have not shown direct harmful effects, but as with all medicines, caution is advised. The decision to use desmopressin during pregnancy should carefully weigh the benefits against the potential risks.
Desmopressin does pass into breast milk, but at the doses used therapeutically, it is unlikely to affect the nursing infant. Studies measuring desmopressin in breast milk after maternal intranasal administration of 10 mcg found only trace amounts, far below the levels needed to affect infant urine output. Nevertheless, you should discuss the use of desmopressin while breastfeeding with your healthcare provider.
Driving and Operating Machinery
Desmopressin STADA has no or negligible effect on the ability to drive and use machines. However, you should be aware of potential side effects such as dizziness or drowsiness that could impair your ability. If you experience these effects, you should not drive or operate dangerous machinery until they resolve. Always read the full side effects information and discuss any concerns with your doctor.
Important Information About Ingredients
Desmopressin STADA sublingual tablets contain lactose (a type of sugar). If you have been told by your doctor that you have an intolerance to certain sugars, contact your doctor before taking this medicine. The tablets also contain sodium, but less than 1 mmol (23 mg) per sublingual tablet – meaning they are essentially sodium-free.
How Does Desmopressin STADA Interact with Other Drugs?
Quick Answer: Several drug classes can increase the risk of water retention and hyponatremia when taken with desmopressin, including antidepressants (TCAs and SSRIs), antiepileptics (carbamazepine), antipsychotics, NSAIDs, and sulfonylurea antidiabetics. Dimethicone (simethicone) may reduce desmopressin's effectiveness.
Drug interactions with desmopressin are clinically important because they primarily affect the risk of hyponatremia (low sodium), which is the most serious potential adverse effect of this treatment. Always inform your doctor or pharmacist about all medicines you are taking, have recently taken, or might take, including over-the-counter medications, herbal remedies, and dietary supplements.
Drugs That Increase the Effect and Risk of Water Retention
The following classes of medicines may enhance the antidiuretic effect of desmopressin, increasing the risk of abnormal fluid retention and dangerously low sodium levels. The mechanism generally involves either potentiation of the renal water-retaining effect or independent reduction of free water clearance:
| Drug Class | Examples | Interaction Mechanism | Risk Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tricyclic antidepressants | Amitriptyline, imipramine, clomipramine | Potentiates renal water reabsorption; may increase ADH secretion | Major |
| SSRIs | Fluoxetine, sertraline, paroxetine, citalopram | Can cause SIADH independently; additive hyponatremic effect | Major |
| Antipsychotics | Chlorpromazine, haloperidol | Enhances ADH release; potentiates water retention | Major |
| Antiepileptics | Carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine | Stimulates vasopressin release and enhances renal response | Major |
| NSAIDs | Ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac, indomethacin | Reduces renal prostaglandin synthesis, impairing free water excretion | Moderate |
| Sulfonylurea antidiabetics | Chlorpropamide, glibenclamide | Potentiates antidiuretic effect, particularly chlorpropamide | Moderate |
| Antidiarrheal agents | Loperamide | May increase plasma desmopressin concentration by up to 3-fold | Moderate |
Drugs That May Decrease Desmopressin's Effect
Certain medications may reduce the effectiveness of desmopressin:
- Dimethicone (simethicone) – commonly used for bloating and excessive gas, this agent may reduce the absorption of sublingual desmopressin when taken concurrently. If you need to use a simethicone-containing product, discuss timing with your pharmacist to minimize this interaction.
- Lithium – used in bipolar disorder, lithium can antagonize the renal action of vasopressin by reducing aquaporin-2 expression, potentially diminishing desmopressin's antidiuretic effect.
Food Interactions
Taking Desmopressin STADA with food may reduce its effectiveness. The sublingual tablet should ideally be taken at the same time relative to meals each day. Consistent timing ensures predictable absorption and drug effect. Alcohol consumption can also increase urine output, potentially counteracting desmopressin's effect. Excessive fluid intake with any meal or beverage should be avoided, particularly within the restriction window of 1 hour before to 8 hours after dosing.
What Is the Correct Dosage of Desmopressin STADA?
Quick Answer: The sublingual tablet is placed under the tongue where it dissolves without water. For diabetes insipidus: 60–120 mcg three times daily. For bedwetting in children 5+: 120–240 mcg at bedtime. For nocturia in adults under 65: 60 mcg at bedtime. Always follow your doctor's individual dosing instructions.
Always take this medicine exactly as your doctor has told you. The dose is determined individually by your prescribing physician. Desmopressin STADA should always be taken at the same time relative to food intake to ensure consistent absorption and effect.
How to Take the Sublingual Tablet
The sublingual lyophilisate (freeze-dried tablet) should be placed under the tongue, where it dissolves rapidly without the need for water. Do not chew, crush, or swallow the tablet whole. Handle the tablet with dry hands and remove it from the blister pack immediately before placing it under the tongue. The tablet typically dissolves within seconds. Avoid eating or drinking for a few minutes after placement to ensure complete absorption through the sublingual mucosa.
| Indication | Patient Group | Starting Dose | Usual Dose Range | Timing |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Central Diabetes Insipidus | Adults and children | 60 mcg three times daily | 60–120 mcg three times daily | Three times daily, evenly spaced |
| Nocturnal Enuresis (Bedwetting) | Children ≥ 5 years | 120 mcg at bedtime | 120–240 mcg at bedtime | At bedtime; restrict fluids |
| Nocturia | Adults < 65 years | 60 mcg at bedtime | 60 mcg at bedtime | At bedtime; restrict fluids |
Adults – Central Diabetes Insipidus
The typical starting dose for adults with central diabetes insipidus is one to two 60 mcg sublingual tablets (60–120 mcg) administered three times daily. The dose should be individually titrated based on clinical response, including measurement of urine osmolality and urine volume. Some patients may require higher or lower doses. The physician will adjust the dosage to achieve optimal control of symptoms – ideally maintaining normal urine output and resolving excessive thirst – while minimizing the risk of water retention.
Children – Central Diabetes Insipidus
The dosing for children with central diabetes insipidus is the same as for adults: 60–120 mcg sublingual tablets three times daily, individually titrated. Close monitoring is essential in children, as they may be more susceptible to fluid overload. Parents or caregivers should be educated about the importance of fluid restriction and recognizing early signs of water intoxication (headache, nausea, lethargy).
Children – Nocturnal Enuresis (Bedwetting)
For children aged 5 years and older with nocturnal enuresis, the usual starting dose is one to two 120 mcg sublingual tablets (120–240 mcg) placed under the tongue at bedtime. The tablet should be taken immediately before going to sleep, and fluid intake must be restricted from 1 hour before to 8 hours after administration. Every three months, the treating physician should evaluate whether the treatment should continue by implementing a treatment-free period of at least one week to assess whether the child has achieved spontaneous resolution of symptoms.
Adults – Nocturia
For nocturia in adults under 65 years, the recommended dose is one 60 mcg sublingual tablet at bedtime. Fluid intake must be restricted from 1 hour before until 8 hours after administration. The physician should assess the need for continued treatment at appropriate intervals. Desmopressin is not recommended for nocturia in patients aged 65 or older due to the increased risk of hyponatremia in this age group.
Missed Dose
If you forget to take a dose, skip the missed dose and continue with your next scheduled dose at the usual time. Do not take a double dose to make up for a forgotten tablet. Taking extra doses may increase the risk of fluid retention and hyponatremia.
Overdose
If you take too much Desmopressin STADA, or if a child has accidentally ingested this medicine, contact your doctor, hospital emergency department, or poison control center immediately for risk assessment and advice.
An overdose of desmopressin may prolong and intensify the antidiuretic effect, significantly increasing the risk of water retention and hyponatremia (low sodium). Symptoms of severe water intoxication include seizures and loss of consciousness (coma). Treatment of overdose typically involves fluid restriction, and in severe cases, intravenous hypertonic saline under close medical supervision with frequent monitoring of serum sodium levels.
If You Stop Taking Desmopressin STADA
Do not stop taking desmopressin without consulting your doctor. For patients with central diabetes insipidus, stopping the medication abruptly will result in the rapid return of excessive urine production and thirst. For bedwetting and nocturia, the doctor will provide guidance on the most appropriate time and method to discontinue treatment.
What Are the Side Effects of Desmopressin STADA?
Quick Answer: The most common side effect in adults is headache. Other common effects include low sodium, dizziness, high blood pressure, gastrointestinal symptoms, and peripheral edema. The most serious risk is hyponatremia (low sodium), which can cause confusion, seizures, and coma if fluid intake is not properly restricted.
Like all medicines, Desmopressin STADA can cause side effects, although not everybody gets them. The risk of side effects is generally dose-dependent and significantly influenced by adherence to fluid restriction guidelines. If fluid intake is not limited as directed, excessive water can accumulate in the body, leading to dilutional hyponatremia. This is the most clinically important adverse effect and usually manifests first as headache, nausea, or weight gain. In severe cases, confusion, seizures, and coma may occur. These symptoms typically resolve when the dose is reduced.
Side Effects in Adults
Very Common
- Headache
Common
- Hyponatremia (low sodium in the blood)
- Dizziness
- High blood pressure (hypertension)
- Abdominal pain
- Nausea
- Diarrhea
- Constipation
- Vomiting
- Bladder and urinary tract symptoms
- Peripheral edema (swelling of hands, arms, feet, or legs)
- Fatigue
Uncommon
- Insomnia (difficulty sleeping)
- Somnolence (drowsiness)
- Paraesthesia (tingling or “pins and needles”)
- Visual disturbances
- Vertigo
- Palpitations (awareness of heartbeat)
- Orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure on standing)
- Dyspnea (shortness of breath)
- Dyspepsia, flatulence, abdominal distension
- Sweating, pruritus (itching), rash, urticaria (hives)
- Muscle spasms, muscle pain
- Chest pain, flu-like symptoms
- Weight gain
- Elevated liver enzymes, hypokalemia (low potassium)
Rare
- Confusional state
- Allergic dermatitis (allergic skin inflammation)
Not Known
- Anaphylactic reaction (severe allergic reaction)
- Dehydration
- Hypernatremia (high sodium)
- Seizures
- Asthenia (weakness)
- Coma
Additional Side Effects in Children and Adolescents
Children may experience some side effects that differ from adults in their frequency and nature. Behavioral and emotional effects are more commonly reported in pediatric patients:
Common in Children
- Headache
Uncommon in Children
- Rapidly changing emotions (emotional lability)
- Aggression
- Nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea
- Bladder and urinary tract symptoms
- Swollen hands and feet (peripheral edema)
- Fatigue
Rare in Children
- Anxiety symptoms, nightmares, mood swings
- Somnolence (drowsiness)
- High blood pressure
- Irritability
Not Known in Children
- Anaphylactic reaction, hyponatremia (low sodium)
- Abnormal behavior, emotional disturbance, depression, hallucination
- Insomnia, decreased attention, increased involuntary movements
- Seizures, nosebleed
- Rash, allergic dermatitis, sweating, urticaria
If you experience any side effects, talk to your doctor, pharmacist, or nurse. This includes any possible side effects not listed here. You can also report side effects directly to your national pharmacovigilance authority. By reporting side effects, you help provide more information on the safety of this medicine.
How Should You Store Desmopressin STADA?
Quick Answer: Keep out of the sight and reach of children. Store in the original packaging to protect from moisture. Blister packs have no special temperature requirements. HDPE bottles should be stored below 30°C with the lid tightly closed.
Proper storage of desmopressin sublingual tablets is essential to maintain the stability and effectiveness of the medication. Desmopressin sublingual tablets are particularly sensitive to moisture, and improper storage can cause premature dissolution or degradation of the active ingredient, rendering the tablets ineffective.
- Keep out of the sight and reach of children at all times.
- Do not use after the expiry date printed on the blister, label, carton, or bottle (after “EXP”). The expiry date refers to the last day of the stated month.
- Blister packaging: Store in the original blister. This product is sensitive to moisture. No special temperature storage conditions required.
- HDPE bottle packaging: Store in the original container. Keep the bottle tightly closed. This product is sensitive to moisture. Store below 30°C.
- Do not dispose of medicines via wastewater or household waste. Ask your pharmacist how to dispose of medicines no longer needed. These measures help protect the environment.
What Does Desmopressin STADA Contain?
Quick Answer: Desmopressin STADA contains the active substance desmopressin (as desmopressin acetate) in three strengths: 60 mcg, 120 mcg, and 240 mcg. Inactive ingredients include lactose monohydrate, maize starch, citric acid, croscarmellose sodium, and magnesium stearate.
Active Substance
The active substance in each tablet is desmopressin, present as desmopressin acetate:
- Desmopressin STADA 60 mcg: Each sublingual tablet contains 60 micrograms of desmopressin (as desmopressin acetate)
- Desmopressin STADA 120 mcg: Each sublingual tablet contains 120 micrograms of desmopressin (as desmopressin acetate)
- Desmopressin STADA 240 mcg: Each sublingual tablet contains 240 micrograms of desmopressin (as desmopressin acetate)
Inactive Ingredients (Excipients)
The other ingredients are: lactose monohydrate, maize starch, citric acid (E 330), croscarmellose sodium (E 468), and magnesium stearate (E 470b). These excipients serve as fillers, binders, disintegrants, and lubricants to ensure proper tablet formation and rapid sublingual dissolution.
Tablet Appearance and Pack Sizes
| Strength | Shape | Marking | Dimensions |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60 mcg | Round, biconvex, white/off-white | “I” on one side, plain on other | 6.5 mm diameter, 2 mm thick |
| 120 mcg | Octagonal, biconvex, white/off-white | “II” on one side, plain on other | 6.5 mm length/width, 2 mm thick |
| 240 mcg | Square, biconvex, white/off-white | “III” on one side, plain on other | 6 mm length/width, 2 mm thick |
Desmopressin STADA is available in cartons containing OPA/Al/PVC/PE-Al blisters with integrated desiccant in pack sizes of 10, 20, 30, 50, 60, 90, or 100 sublingual tablets, or perforated unit-dose blisters of 10×1, 20×1, 30×1, 50×1, 60×1, 90×1, 100×1 sublingual tablets, or in HDPE bottles with PP lids containing an integrated desiccant, holding 30 or 100 sublingual tablets. Not all pack sizes may be marketed in all countries.
Marketing Authorization Holder
STADA Arzneimittel AG, Stadastrasse 2–18, 61118 Bad Vilbel, Germany.
Frequently Asked Questions About Desmopressin STADA
References
- European Medicines Agency (EMA). Desmopressin – Summary of Product Characteristics. Accessed January 2026.
- World Health Organization. WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, 23rd List (2023). Geneva: WHO; 2023. Desmopressin listed for diabetes insipidus.
- National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Nocturnal enuresis: the management of bedwetting in children and young people. Clinical guideline [CG111]. Updated 2023.
- Vande Walle J, Rittig S, Bauer S, et al. Practical consensus guidelines for the management of enuresis. European Journal of Pediatrics. 2012;171(6):971–983. doi:10.1007/s00431-012-1687-7
- Ebell MH, Radke T, Gardner J. A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of desmopressin for nocturia in adults. Journal of Urology. 2014;192(3):829–835. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2014.03.095
- Juul KV, Bichet DG, Nielsen S, Norgaard JP. The physiological and pathophysiological functions of renal and extrarenal vasopressin V2 receptors. American Journal of Physiology–Renal Physiology. 2014;306(9):F931–F940.
- European Association of Urology (EAU). Guidelines on Non-neurogenic Male Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms (LUTS), incl. Benign Prostatic Obstruction (BPO). Updated 2024.
- International Children's Continence Society (ICCS). Standardization of terminology of lower urinary tract function in children and adolescents. Neurourology and Urodynamics. 2016;35(4):471–481.
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Desmopressin acetate – Prescribing information. Reference ID: current approved labeling.
- Rembratt A, Graugaard-Jensen C, Senderovitz T, Norgaard JP, Djurhuus JC. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of desmopressin administered as sublingual tablet and oral lyophilisate formulation in healthy volunteers. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2004;60(6):397–402.
Medical Editorial Team
This article has been reviewed and approved by the iMedic Medical Editorial Team, comprising licensed specialist physicians and clinical pharmacologists with expertise in endocrinology, nephrology, and urology.
Medical Review Board
Board-certified specialists in endocrinology, nephrology, and clinical pharmacology
Evidence Standards
GRADE framework, Evidence Level 1A – Systematic reviews and RCTs
Guidelines Followed
WHO, EMA, FDA, NICE, EAU, ICCS
Independence
No pharmaceutical company funding or sponsorship
Last medical review: . Content reviewed according to international medical standards.